A13. 20240325 Houtrookvrij Informatie schadelijkheid houtstook en noodzaak tot uitfaseren.pdf

A study in Italy focused on investigating the partiele size distribu­ tion of NP emissions from an 11 kW commercially available fireplace buming beech wood (the fiiel for European standards) [2]. The group analyzed 15 tests over three different bum periods: start-up, steady state, and bum-out. Similar to US test methods the group measured from a dilution tunnel and further diluted the flue gas to achieve less partiele coincidence. To determine NP concentrations an ELPI and a Fast Mobility Partiele Sizer (FMPS) were used. It was concluded NPs accounted for 67% of the total particles measured with the mode par­ tiele diameter of the average size distribution to be around 10-20nm, in all three phases, but the highest concentrations were found in the start-up phase and lowest in the steady state period [2]. The group found particles in the range of 100-326 nm as well but suggested they were likely primary soot particles that underwent condensation in the diluted and cooled fuel gas [2]. A dip in O2 values corresponded to a decrease in number of NPs as well. Interesting in terms of environmental fate of wood combustion NPs, the group showed that due to dilution and cooling of flue gas, stable distinct size distributions during each separate phase were achieved with only slight changes during the transition from one phase to another. In a later study by Ozgen et al.

[72], using the same 11 kW stove as mentioned above [21, nanoparticles with a GMD of 28 nm accounted for 32% of the emissions whereas larger particles with a GMD of 127nm accounted for 68% of the emissions. Similar sampling techniques were employed using a dilution tunnel. The investigators found the ignition phase was responsible for 46% of the NP burden and cold starts, which are common practice in the field, resulted in a magnitude higher in emissions. They reported that larger soot particles emitted during the flaming combustion phases were coated by condensed semi-volatile organic species that were diluted and cooled in the flue gas; this finding suggests that minimizing incomplete combustion is enough for partiele number reduction. Similar to other cited studies, the Ozgen et al. [72] 523

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Table 3 Summary of average partiele size from cited sources. Equipment Cordwood Stoves

Pellet Stoves Cordwood Boilers

Pellet Boilers

Chip Boilers

Fireplaces and Masonry Heaters

Summary: average partiele sizes are given unless otherwise specified Start up: 180-260 nm Steady state: 30: 107; 175-180 nm Bum out 30-60 nm; 180-200 nm Bum out or start up showing the highest concentrations of NPs and steady state having the lowest concentrations of NPs In some studies, aggregations of NPs with diameters of 313-662 nms Low MW PAHs favored small NP diameters & High MW PAHs favored coarse particles Increase in oxygen in combustion chamber caused for smaller particles Decrease in oxygen caused PAH levels to increase and bind to NPs Image: high temperature combustion produced carbon aggregations with single particles having a single nuclei and turbostratic stntcture; low temperature combustion produced carbon dominated spherical particles 7-30 nm Steady state showed lowest concentrations of NPs 60-180nm; but as small as 12nm to as large as 400nm Highest concentrations seen during start up Advanced boilers produced smaller particles and lower concentrations than traditional boilers PAHs higher in older boiler technology 60-130 nm (no bark pellets) 220 nm (bark pellets) No obvious trend was observed between full and intermittent output in terms of partiele size, only a very slight increase in mass concentration.

Particles were likely inorganic salts Steady state: 25-75 nm; lowest partiele concentrations Modulating: 65 nm Smolder: 160-200 nm; highest partiele concentrations Lower excess air values led to lower partiele counts and larger particles, however another group found greater concentrations with increased oxygen SEM & TEM images indicated different types of particles; agglomerates of spherical compact particles, perfectly spherical representing coal fly ash or irregular shaped crystalline platelets. Efficiënt was typically salts and crystalline while intermediate was a variety of soot agglomerates and ash; smolder was large agglomerates of soot PAHs bound to NPs lowest during efficiënt bums and highest during smoldering conditions 10-20 nm; 50-65 nm; 170 nm 70-250 nm during smoldering 100-326 nm range assumed to be agglomerates owed to cooling Start-up had highest concentrations; steady state had lowest Decrease in oxygen corresponded to decrease in NPs Newer technology stoves seemed to produce more NPs Agglomerates with individual particles spherical in shape Normal combustion showed spherical and irregular shapes while smoldering combustion showed more irregular and sintered-like structures Some salts but a presences of heavy organic compounds as well

found the start-up and flaming phase were characterized by small partiele diameters whereas smoldering conditions had larger partiele diameters. Number concentrations were greatest during the start-up phases and especially for cold start-up phases but were lower for smoldering phases. A group in France looked at the mass and number distributions of wood combustion particles emitted from beech cordwood (12% moisture content) during normal and reduced operation from two dif­ ferent fireplaces; one a conventional fireplace (13 kW) with only primary air intake from the front and the other was a more compact ‘next generation’ fireplace (4 kW) with primary and secondary air intake. Measurements were taken from a dilution tunnel using a gravimetric based filter measurement and ELPI. Surprisingly, the study found the opposite trend of most, in that the older technology was more favorable to less particulates but ultimately showed agreement that more NPs were produced in the newer technology. The study found the next generation fireplace produced much higher partiele emission numbers for than the conventional fireplace; specifically, for the reduced con­ ditions, the emission numbers were 50 times greater in the more modem fireplace than the older conventional unit [731.

While 80% and 60% (total number of particles) of the total PM consisted of particles with a diameter less than 100 nm, for the new and old fireplaces, re­ spectively, it only contributed to a very small extent of the total mass of the aerosol; 5.5-5.8% and 2.6-0.3% for the new and old fireplaces, respectively during normal and reduced operations [73], Another group in Finland looked at the PM and gaseous emissions

References [56,61-65,67]

[67,68] [31,58]

[9.18,31,56,61,69]

[21,56,63,70]

[2,55,71-73]

from both normal and smoldering wood combustion periods in a conventional masonry heater made of soapstone using birch cordwood at 7% moisture content. The results from the study showed a higher partiele emission number measured in a dilution tunnel by the ELPI and FMPS during the normal combustion and less than half the partiele emission number during smoldering state with geometrie mean dia­ meters of 56 and 65 nm by FMPS and ELPI measurements, respectively, for normal combustion, and 118 and 160nm values for smoldering combustion [55]. Surprisingly for cordwood combustion, the repeatability was good. Even if all operating parameters are kept constant, manual fed cordwood appliances are very variable [58], The study found the average partiele number size distribution for normal com­ bustion to be unimodal at 65 nm and the smolder combustion to produce a bimodal distribution with peaks at 70 and 250 nm (55], In addition, SEM and TEM analysis from the hot stack showed both spherical and irregular shaped particles making up larger agglomerates and fine ash particles remained as separate particles. Normal combustion showed spherical and irregular shapes while smoldering combustion showed more irregular and sintered-like structures.

The elemental analysis showed single particles were composed mainly of carbon, but also contained K, S, Zn, and less commonly O, Ca, Fe, Mg, Cl, P and Na were found |55]. Similar to studies mentioned above, partiele material volatized under the beam indicating the presence of heavy organic compounds. The group was able to suggest the shifting of partiele size during the different combustion conditions seemed to be determined by the amount of condensed organic vapor in the flue gas [55], 524

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Raiewable and Siulainablt Energy Heviewi 103 (2019) 515-528

In addition to the work done by Lamberg et al. [9] on a pellet boiler, the group also studied three conventional masonry heaters and one modem masonry heater made of soapstonc. All masonry heaters bumed birch logs with a low moisture content (10-13% on a dry basis). The group cxplored continuous combustion, steady-state periods, cyclic operation, and ignition phases. Overall, GMD sizes ranged from 63 nm to 142nm. The largest diameters were found during incomplete com­ bustion phases and also produced bimodal number and size distributions; the ignition phase also produced a larger GMD [9]. Similar to the pellet boiler discussed above, the most abundant PAHs were pyrene and fluoranthene in addition to phenanthrene and cyclopenta[c,d]pyrene for one of the masonry heaters. Total PAH emissions from PM] emissions (PAH/PMi) were higher than that of the pellet boiler but still reasonably low with a range of 0.15-2.8%.

the old-type wood boiler could be rcduced if it was connected to a storage tank, similar to advanccd modem units, higher quality fuel (lower moisture content) was used, or if fuel amount was decreased and small batches of fuel were loaded instead of a full charge. The study found poorer combustion conditions increased the amount of particles smaller than 100 nm. Finally, the group compared the wood combus­ tion devices to oil bumers finding pellet systems rivaled oil bumers but old-type wood boilers would have low efficiencies, high PM emissions, and unoxidized gaseous compounds [31]. While advanced systems that employ multiple control devices may decrease the amount of PM emission concentrations as well as reduce the amount of harmful PAHs produced, they tend to be expensive. In 2006, the International Energy Agency commented on using ESPs to reduce submicron particles but such devices were very expensive and not affordable for residential use [27]. Another review suggested the easiest way to control emissions is to use a high quality fuel with low ash content, low moisture, and constant piece size whose options may also not cost competitive, or boilers must use proper combustion chamber designs and adequate air pollution control technology [54], Therefore, there is a need to develop cost sensitive, yet effective, sub­ micron PM reduction technologies.

One interesting technology dis­ cussed in a review by Lim et al. [77], is the use of a miniature pipe bundle heat exchanger (a technology used in the automobile industry) where particles migrate to the lower temperature surfaces and deposit on the tube walls to remove particles from the flue gas. Other options may also include better combustion designs or Controls, such as lambda probes. Lambda probes can detect the oxygen levels and effectively modulate the air to fuel ratio. Several studies above indicated as optimal oxygen levels were reached, less particles were formed and a shift towards larger partiele sizes was achieved [2,56,63,78]. Perhaps lambda sensors could be used to favor a combustion condition which reduces the amount of harmful NPs produced. Incomplete combustion, smoldering, and transition conditions are known to favor PAH and black carbon production. Further, when temperatures are low, PAHs can condense or adsorb onto particles [77]. Smaller NPs are known to carry larger PAH molecules and are difficult to remove, while larger more coarse particles carry lower molecular weight PAHs [77], Likewise, Ghiassi et al. found the most reactive soot had an amorphous nanostructure which was composed of short individual layer planes with no orientation relative to each other [79]. The laboratory study by Hata el al.

indicated biomass type and the heating rate had a significant effect on the water soluble OC fraction and the smaller the NP, the more water soluble OC the partiele contained [22], Very few studies have looked at the microstructure of NPs but this could also provide important Information on the NPs reactivity. The microstructure of NPs can give information about partiele formation, condensation, coagulation [65,80,81] and the ability to accumulate reactive substances [65,82]. Ideally, a NP with a low mobility is desired to reduce inhalation or atmospheric risks. Ultimately, it is important to understand the rate of environmentally induced changes and how the migration of particles changes their properties [76]. Understanding the aggregation behavior under both atmospheric and aquatic conditions may help further predict their potential interactions with the ambient environment [26]. Mavrocordatos et al. [18] investigated the affect salt content within the particles play and found their morphology was significantly affected in aqueous environments. Perhaps if a sufficiënt amount of information was gathered on NPs soot emissions from RWC which included explicit details on fuel type, operating parameters, and sampling conditions, manufacturers and operators could be informed with a ‘best practices’ procedure.

As shown in many of the studies reviewed herein, NPs account for a substantial amount of the partiele emissions associated with biomass combustion. However, standards enforced by regulatory agencies are mass concentration based, focusing on size ranges less than or equal to 10 pm (total PM; PMT) or less than or equal to 2.5 pm (PM^s). Due to

7. Discussion

This literature review revealed two earlier review papers and about eighty research articles and reports. An earlier review by Kumar et al. reports only limited information on NP emissions from non-vehicles exhaust sources [74); the authors reported only two studies associated with NP emissions in RWC. The current review identified and reviewed many more studies that explicitly or implicitly provide information regarding NP emission data from RWC. However, measuring and quantifying the presence of NP in emissions, and how these emissions vary based on fuel, appliance type, and combustion period are not always well investigated making correlations hard to draw. The second major review by Balling et al. (2009) pointed out there has been a lot of work done in steady-state operating conditions but there is limited data on particles from conventional cordwood boilers, modem wood stoves, and modem cordwood boilers [10]. The current review shows that this statement still holds true eight years later. Table 3 bclow summarizes the information collected from the papers above. In addition, cold starts, modulation periods, and in-efficient bums exist and there may be an underestimation of real-life emissions which contain partiele fractions that can be associated with health impacts in local areas [56], As reported by Tom et al.

[75], the majority of published studies were associated with laboratory experiments and field performance measurements were lacking. There is a significant need to characterize the partiele types in biomass smoke, since the regional and global climate effects of aerosols from biomass buming depend so strongly on partiele properties [17], However, manually fed cordwood stoves and boilers have a tendency to vary in their bum conditions even if fueled exactly the same way. Schmatloch and Brenn directly observed this when fueling a cordwood fumace and trying to reproduce the size distribution in particles; bum one had much fewer concentrations of NPs less than 140 nm and greater amounts of NPs larger than 220 nm than bum two which showed opposite trends [58]. This is owed to the nature of wood- how it bums and falls within the combustion chamber. This makes reproducibility very difficult and partiele size distributions to have a larger variation than advanced automatic feed boilers [58]. This statement compliments the findings by Gaegauf et al. [56]. This also makes it difficult to compare partiele size distribution among studies. To complicate matters, Baer indicates that nanoparticles are inadequately characterized since they change with time and can be altered or damaged during analysis [76], so precautions must be taken to not bias research.

Some key factors which may cause some uncertainty are sampling locations, sampling temperatures, and dilution ratios [74], Ozgen et al. point out that the variability of the results conceming the number emissions and the size distribution during different stages of the wood buming cycle suggests that emissions are strongly connected to the combustion conditions depending on the appliance design and operation [72], The study by Johansson et al. [31] emissions from pellet boilers were closer to those of an oil bumer while old-type wood boilers had the highest. An important piece from the study was that emissions from 525

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NPs small size, current measures may not be appropriate for particles in the nano and ultrafine size fraction since they contribute very little to the overall mass. However, they contribute significantly to the overall number of the airbome particles present [11,83] and, potential adverse health effects posed by NPs may go unknown [19). Lim et al. [77], reported that dilution sampling affccts partiele emissions by promoting nucleation but results in an increase in the formation of ultrafine par­ ticles which are better represented by partiele number measurements. Torvela et al. investigated the interminent period when switching from one condition to another, finding the properties of the PM emissions varied significantly even within a short period suggesting that an evaluation of environmental and adverse health effects based on average partiele property values can be misleading [21]. Further, Lamberg et al. concluded from their study that PMi mass does not reflect all of the variation affecting possible toxic properties of fine particles originating from combustion [9], From the Gaegauf et al. [56] study in particular, the highest con­ centration of total suspended particles (TSP) (mg/m3) correlated nicely to the highest total number of nanoparticles ( < 600 nm) collected per MJ of output.

Masonry stoves had the highest TSP concentration along with the highest emission factor of NPs per MJ. In comparison, auto­ matic feed pellet boilers had the lowest TSP and the lowest total number emission factor of NPs. However, when looking at the emission factor (mg/MJ) for both TSP and NPs data in detail, the group noticed while each appliance type typically showed good correlation between the two values, individual cases such as the cordwood boiler showed roughly a 40% reduction in the NP emission factor from the TSP emission factor. This supports the suggestion to modify existing test method regulations or add to them a measurement involving partiele count, size, or surface area. One positive note from a study which compared vehicle emissions to RWC emissions suggests wood smoke may be associated with less negative health effects as diesel NPs were smaller in diameter and have 41% more surface area [64]. Unfortunately another study found PAH content was higher for combustion particles from wood smoke com­ pared to vehicle exhaust, causing risk for a high mutagenic and carcinogenic potential [65).

more efficiënt and “cleaner” systems, an increase in released NPs may follow. However, with more efficiënt boiler systems PAH levels are being decreased; causing one to argue what is more important NPs or PAHs? Partiele distribution of batch-wise fired appliances (wood stoves) varied significantly during a bum cycle, while wood log and continuous fed boilers showed a fairly constant partiele size distribution. These differences are likely to influence the biological effects induced by wood smoke particles and therefore it has been recommended to explore how combustion conditions influence the partiele properties, their possible health risks, and reactivity within the environment. Although a lot of work has been done to understand the health effects associated with RWC NPs, but little is known about the environmental fate of RWC NPs and their effect on cl i mate. In addition, NP emission data from wood buming processes under real-world operating conditions are lacking. More data are needed about source, expected quantities or concentrations, and environmental pathways to help identify situations which may be more favorable than others. Several studies show results of size characterizalion but morphology and Chemical composition data are limited.

Predicting or studying the aggregation, agglomeration, dispersion, size, solubility, surface area, charge, and composition are all necessary parameters to better predict the environmental fate and any health concerns of bio­ mass combustion NPs. While biomass is often considered and encouraged as a renewable energy source, it is important to not ignore consequences of poor combustion practices and NP production. Several articles have suggested pathways to reduce NPs such as emission control strategies or higher quality fuel sources. Emission control devices suggested for large biomass boilers include ESPs and condensing heat exchangers but their effectiveness in controlling NP has not been assessed.

Acknowledgement

Rebecca Trojanowski is grateful to New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) for partial support of this re­ search through contracts # 29697 and # 63038, Dr. Barbara PanessaWarren (Guest Scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory), Dr. Thomas Butcher (Group Leader of the Energy Conversion Group at Brookhaven National Laboratory), and Dr. John B. Warren (Scientist in the Instrumentation Division at Brookhaven National Laboratory).

8. Conclusions and recommendations

Current emission regulations from wood combustion devices in the US and EU are based on an overall mass concentration of particles and NPs are neither measured nor reflected in these emission regulations, allegedly because of their low mass contribution. This review revealed that NPs account for a substantial amount of partiele emissions associated with residential wood combustion (RWC) devices. A long standing argument has been the necd to modify existing test method regulations or add to them a measurement involving partiele count, type size, or surface area. NPs from RWC cause local environmental impacts and potential global impacts due to large concentrations in the atmosphere. This review identified combustion conditions that may result in increasing amounts of NP emissions. These are associated with the device type, its operation, and the fuel used. We often see an inverse relationship between the total PAH mass and its NP fraction. It is reported that PAH emissions could be up to 100 times higher if a stove was not operated properly, although NP production would be decreased. Also it is reported that, if an advanced system's heating load is decreased, cordwood and automatic wood-fired boilers (pellet and chips) may have trouble modulating, causing them to cycle frequently and generale more mass PAH emissions, but lower NPs.

It is a cause for concern that NPs may be undetected as by virtue of their large surface to volume ratio they adsorb larger amounts of reactive compounds and, therefore, may induce a more pronounced pro-inflammatory response than larger particles of the same compound. A significant, and unexpectcd finding is that as conventional units are displaced by modem,

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Energy Fuels 2012;26:6695-702. [61] Bologa A, Paur H-R, Seifen H, Woletz K. Fine partiele generation, evolution and control by small biomass combustion. Manag Environ Qual: Int J 2012;23(l):36-55. [62] Hays MD, Smith ND, Kinsey J, Dong Y, Kariher P. Polycydic aromatic hydrocarbon size distribution in aerosols from appliances of residential wood combustion as determined by direct thermal desportion- GC/MS. J Aerosol Sci 2003;34:1061-84. [63] Hueglin C, Gaegauf C, Kunzel S, Burtscher H. Characterization of Wood Combustion Particles: morphology, Mobility and Photoelectric Activity. Environ Sd Technol 1997;31:3439-47. [64] Kocbach A. Johansen B, Schwarze P, Namork E. Analytical electron microscopy of combustion particles: a comparison of vehicle exhaust and residential wood smoke. Sci Total Environ 2005;346:231-43. [65] Kochbach A, Li Y, Yttri KE. Cassee FR, Schwarze PE, Namork E. Physicochemical characterisation of combustion particles from vehide exhaust and residential wood smoke. Part Fibre Toxicol 2006;3(1): 1-10. [66] Heckman F. Microstructure of carbon black. Rubber Chem Technol 1964;37(5): 1245-98. [67] Corsini E, Ozgen S, Papale A, Galbiati V, Ixinati G, Fermo P. et al. Insights on wood combustion generaled proinflammatory ultrafine particles (UPF). Toxicol Lett 2017;266:74-84. [68] Commodo M, Sgro LA, D'Anna A, Minutolo P.

Size distribution of nanoparticles generaled by a heating stove buming wood pellets. EQA-Environ Qual 2012;8:21-6. [69] Kaivosoja T, Jalava P. lamberg H, Viren A, Tapanainen M, Torvela T, et al. Comparison of emissions and toxicological proporties of fine particles from wood and oil boilers in small (20-25 kW) and medium (5-10 MW) scale. Atmos Environ 2013;77:193-201. [70] I-eskinen J, Tissari J, Uski O, Viren A, Torvela T, Kaivosoja T, el al. Fine partiele emissions in three different combustion condilions of a wood chip-fïred applianceparticulate physico-chemical propertjes and induced cell death. Atmos Environ 2014;86:129-39. [71] Dasch J Muhlbaler. Particulate and gaseous emissions from wood-buming fireplaces. Environ Sci Technol 1982;16(10):639-45. [72] Ozgen S, Cemuschi S, Giugliano M. Experimental evaluation of partiele number emissions from wood combustion in a closed fireplace. Biomass Bioenergy 2013;50:65-75. [73] Ozil F, Haas F, Trouve G. Size distributions and emission factors of PM1 and PM2.5 during wood combustion in domestic fireplaces. ResearchGate; 2014. [74] Kumar P, Pirjola L, Ketzel M, Harrison RM. Nanoparticle emissions from 11 nonvehide exhaust sources- a review. Atmos Environ 2013:67:252-77. [75] Tom T, Griel W, Jan C, Silvia L.

Literature review of emissions of modern wood combustion devices and emissions reducing technologies, under real-life conditions. University of Antwerp, Institute of Environmental & Sustainable Development; 2017. [76] Baer DR. Surface Characterization of Nanoparticles: critical needs and significant challenges. J Surf Anal 2011;17(3): 163-9.

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[77] Lim MT, Phan A, Roddy D, Harvey A. Technologies for measurement and mitigation of particulate emissions from domestic combustion of biomass: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;49:574-84. [78] Johansson L, Tullin C, Leckner B. Particulate emissions from small-scale biomass combustion. In: International Seminar Aerosols from Biomass Combustion, Zurich, Switzerland; 2001. [79] Ghiassi H, Toth P, Jaramillo IC. Lighty JS. Soot oxidation-induced fragmentation: Part 1: the relationship between soot nanostructure and oxidation-induced frag­ mentation. Combust Flame 2016;163:179-86. [80] Ishiguro T, Takatori Y, Akihama K. Microstructure of diesel soot particles probed by electrong microscopy: first observation of inner core and outer shell. Combust Flame 1997;108:231-4.

[81] Lighty J, Veranth J, Sarofim A. Combustion aerosols: factors goveming their size and compostion and implications to human health. J Waste Manag Assoc 2000;50:1565-681. [82] Berube K, Jones T, Williamson B, Winters C, Morgan A, Richards R. Physicochemical characterisation of diesel exhaust particles: factors for assessing biological activity. Atmos Environ 1999;33:1599-614. [83] Andersen ZJ, Wahlin P, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Scheike T, Loft S. Ambient partiele source apportionment and daily hospita! admissions among children and elderly in Copenhagen. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2007;17:625-36. [84] Hartmann H, Turowski P, Kiener S. Electrostatic precipitators for small-scale wood combustion systems- Results from lab- and field tests. Graz: Central European Biomass Conference; 2011.

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houtrookvrij

Aan de gemeenteraden van de gemeenten in Nederland Aan de secretaris Adviescommissie Economie, Klimaat, Energie en Milieu van de VNG, mw. Leonie Jorna leonie.iorna(S)vng.nl Kopie: directeur Beleid Leefomgeving, dhr. A. Vermuë directeurleefomgeving@vnE.nl Datum: 19 maart 2024 Betreft: informatie schadelijkheid houtstook (ook EcoDesign) en noodzaak uitfaseren Stichting HoutrookVrij biedt u informatie en advies

Geachte gemeenteraadsleden, geachte adviescommissieleden van de VNG,

De bewijzen stapelen zich op dat particuliere houtstook - met veel fijnstof, PAK en benzeen - zorgt voor grote schade aan de volksgezondheid. Veel instanties roepen daarom op tot een stookverbod, maar bereiken het publiek en de bestuurders niet, omdat zij vooral worden geïnformeerd door de kachelbranche die - vanuit commerciële belangen - 'goed stoken in EcoDesign' onterechte in de markt heeft gezet als "gezellig en vrijwel schoon". Men denkt zo al snel dat de klager "zeurt". Het rijksoverheidsbeleid biedt onvoldoende informatie om bevolking en bestuurders te overtuigen van het belang van een - aanvankelijk partieel - stookverbod (in het Omgevingsplan). De geadviseerde stooktips om "goed" te stoken en de gecertificeerde neus om dat te controleren zijn niet alleen zeer arbeidsintensief maar helaas ook onvoldoende. Optimaal gestookte EcoDesign kachels zijn evengoed schadelijk. Uitrafijnstof is niet te ruiken en fijnstof is per definitie onzichtbaar. Stichting Houtrookvrij biedt u hieronder informatie voor uw gemeentelijk beleid, maar ook voor landelijk beleid, te bevragen bij de staatssecretaris en de landelijke politieke partijen.

1. Nieuwe WHO-normen vereisen een houtstookverbod De WHO adviseert een strengere PMj.s norm omdat bij de oude nog 8% oversterfte en veel gezond­ heidsschade wordt gezien. Europees onderzoek (ELAPSE) kwam uit op 11%. Veel instanties geven aan dat voor het behalen van deze nieuwe norm een houtstookverbod onvermijdelijk is: RIVM, Duitse Umwelt Bundes Amt, de International Society for Environmental Epidemiology (ISEE) en de European Respiratory Society (ERS)14. Industrie en mobiliteit zijn onmisbaar en kunnen niet zo snel veranderen, maar houtstook kan dat wel, omdat het vrijwel altijd aanvullend wordt gebruikt (l&O Research)5. Zes jaar Australisch overheidsbeleid - met stooktips en moderne kachels - toonde geen afname van het PMj.s. Door legitimatie werd er juist meer gestookt. Het advies is ook daar een stookverbod6. Ook Vlaams onderzoek naar stooktips (o.a. de Zwitserse methode) verlaagde de uitstoot niet7. 2. Optimaal gestookte EcoDesign kachels zijn evengoed schadelijk Optimaal gestookte EcoDesign kachels stoten weliswaar minder PM2,suit maar nog altijd 550x meer dan een gasgestookte CV en veel en meer ultrafijnstof, tot wel 700 miljoen deeltjes/cm3.810 De deel­ tjes worden kleiner; dat is niet beter maar juist schadelijker.

In tegenstelling tot gewoon fijnstof wordt ultrafijnstof 5x beter opgenomen in de longblaasjes, komt het ook in de bloedbaan en de rest van het lichaam en heeft het een 25x groter reagerend oppervlak (TNO)11. Meer ultrafijnstof biedt ook meer aanklevende PAK toegang tot diep in het lichaam. PAK - polycyclische aromatische koolwaterstoffen zijn celbeschadigend en kankerverwekkend. Ultrafijnstof hangt veel sterker samen (dan fijnstof) met de toename van bijvoorbeeld hartfalen, hartinfarcten en astma1213. De WHO adviseert om gemiddelde dag- en uurwaarden boven de 10.000 en 20.000 deeltjes/cm3 met prioriteit te verlagen14. Ook de Gezondheidsraad adviseert om het ultrafijnstof te verlagen. Dus kunnen EcoDesign kachels - met deze hoge(re) ultrafijnstof uitstoot - niet geadviseerd worden. Mensen denken "schoon" te stoken en gaan daarom meer stoken, met nog meer uitstoot tot gevolg.

houtrookvrij

Volgens het STAB produceren (zeer) goed brandende houtkachels 10.000 nanogram/m3 benzo(a)pyreen (BaP), de markerstof van PAK-mengsels15. Secundair in de lucht tot ultrafijnstof geoxideerde vluchtige stoffen, zijn hierbij niet inbegrepen16. De streef-jaarwaarde van BaP in de EU is 1 nanogram/m3 en volgens de WHO 0,12. Dat is gebaseerd op het toegenomen risico op luchtwegkanker; de oxidatieve schade aan longen en andere organen is hierbij nog niet meegerekend17. Toch wees Europees onderzoek de geoxideerde PAK uit houtrook aan als de belangrijkste bron (in het PMj.s) voor deze oxidatieve schade18. Oxidatieve schade naast ontstekingsreacties worden gezien als het werkingsmechanisme bij de schade door luchtvervuiling19 20. Ook is vastgesteld dat droger hout en moderne houtkachels meer - en meer geoxideerde - PAK uitstoten en zo meer oxidatieve schade kunnen aanrichten aan (afweer)cellen21’2ï. De PAK toename ontstaat door de hogere verbrandingstemperaturen en -snelheden met een relatief O2-tekort. Pelletkachels emitteren wel minder PAK, maar het toegenomen ultrafijnstof biedt PAK (meer) toegang tot diep in het lichaam. De overheid heeft wettelijk de verplichting om de uitstoot van PAK-mengsels als zeer zorgwekkende stoffen - te voorkomen17. Bij Tata Steel is iedereen daarvan wel overtuigd.

Kachelfilters weinig effectief en afgeraden door Royal Haskoning en Bureau Blauw Kachelfilters - zoals een katalysator en elektrostaat - vervuilen snel en verliezen dan hun werking. Het (dagelijks) reinigen is lastig en het regelmatige vervangen duur. Bovendien wordt het nog niet gecon­ denseerde fijnstof (60%) en het ultrafijnstof (met de aanklevende PAK) ongemoeid gelaten24’27. 3. Brede consensus en exponentieel toegenomen bewijs schade houtstook De WHO schrijft al in 2016 over "houtrook en oxidatieve stress, directe cel toxiciteit, beperkt herstelvermogen van beschadigde cellen, longschade met secondaire ontsteking, een ontstekingsbeeld in het bloed en DNA-schade met toegenomen kans op longkanker." PAK en afgeleiden werden als de veroorzakers van deze effecten aangewezen28. De WHO halveerde de norm voor PM2,s vanwege sterk bewijs dat bij de oude norm nog veel oversterfte en ziekten ontstaan aan longen, hart en vaten, zenuwstelsel en andere organen en ook bij (ongeboren) kinderen. Bewijs en nieuwe norm gelden volgens de WHO voor alle PMz,; bronnen tezamen, nadrukkelijk ook voor houtstook1. De Europese longartsen (ERS) en internationale epidemiologen (ISEE) roepen op tot een houtstookverbod vanwege "brede consensus en exponentieel toegenomen bewijs" dat luchtvervuiling "vrijwel alle organen aantast en getinkt is aan vele invaliderende ziektebeelden"29.

4. Houtrook zorgt voor veel leed Een kwart van de Nederlanders ervaart matige of ernstige overlast door houtrook (l&O Research)30. Mensen kunnen hun huis niet meer goed ventileren, krijgen zomers hittestress, worden gedwongen wasdrogers te gebruiken en op het dak zuigen moderne warmte-terug-win ventilatiesystemen recht­ streeks de houtrook van de buren aan. Mensen worden gedwongen om in eigen huis en tuin de hout­ rook van de buurt in te ademen, terwijl ze daar (sterk) geïrriteerde luchtwegen van krijgen. Jaarlijks worden 1 miljoen longpatiënten regelmatig benauwd door luchtvervuiling waarvan 50.000 acuut moeten worden opgenomen. Als oorzaak hiervoor wordt houtrook het meest frequent genoemd31. Toch geven veel stokers aan niet de oorzaak te kunnen zijn, want zij stoken "schoon". Gemeenten en rechters zeggen geen bewijs te hebben dat houtrook schadelijk is. Na aanvankelijk protest houden veel klagers zich stil, uit angst voor een negatieve bejegening. Wanhoop en veront­ waardiging dat de overheid hen in de steek laat, dat is wat onze stichting te horen krijgt. 5.

PM2,sis verantwoordelijk voor toename vele ziekten; relatie door mensen zelf moeilijk te leggen PM2,5 zorgt voor meer oorontstekingen, luchtweginfecties, astma, COPD (longfalen), longkanker, hoge bloeddruk, hartritmestoornissen, hartfalen, hart- en herseninfarcten, te klein en te vroeg geboren kinderen, leerstoornissen, ADHD, autisme, depressies, schizofrenie, dementie, Parkinson, adipositas en diabetes 2, reuma, botontkalking, maag-, nier-, blaas-, lever- en hersentumoren en (long)covid32’34.

houtrookvrij

Benzeen - voor een kwart afkomstig van houtstook - veroorzaakt kanker aan de afweerceilen, zoals leukemie, non-Hodgkin lymfoom en multipel myeloom ofwel beenmerg kanker35.

Toename ziektelast door PM2,5 is aanzienlijk, een aanvulling op de GGD Rekentool Bij het Sister-onderzoek in de VS kregen op-hout-stokende vrouwen 68% meer longkanker36. PMj.s veroorzaakt in Nederland 8-37% van alle te klein geboren kinderen. Zij hebben meer kans op onderontwikkelde longen, astma, leerproblemen, speciaal onderwijs, ADHD en autisme. Ook niet te klein geboren kinderen hebben bij blootstelling aan meer PlVh.s vaker een deels dunnere hersen­ schors en een minder goede impulscontrole 37'40. Kinderen in Taiwan hebben 79% meer ADHD als zij leven in het kwart met de hoogste concentraties PM2,5, vergeleken hen in het laagste kwart. Er werd goed gecorrigeerd voor andere risicofactoren41. Volwassenen in de VS hebben 80% meer reuma als zij leven in het kwart met de hoogste PAK concen­ traties. De reuma hing niet samen met PAK afkomstig uit sigarettenrook42. Een meta-analyse naar dementie toont 17% meer dementie bij een toename van elke 2 pg PM2,5/m3, daarbij is goed gecorrigeerd voor andere risicofactoren43. Bij iedere toename van 1 pg PM2,5/m3 nam de sterfte bij Covid-19 met 12% toe en bij iedere 10 pg PM2,5/m3werd 65% meer long-covid (met longproblemen) bij gezonde jongvolwassenen gezien44 45. In Europees onderzoek nam het risico op borstkanker met 12% toe, bij 10 pg/m3 meer aan PM2,5. 5.

Particuliere houtstook is disproportioneel vervuilend Een kleine minderheid van 12,5% huishoudens stookte voornamelijk 1-3 keer per week in een houtkachel of haard. Dat droeg voor 4% bij aan de woningwarmte maar produceerde 24% van alle PM2,S en 69% van alle PAK (2021)46. Buitenstook, BBQ, houtkachels in vakantiehuisjes en woonboten en woningbranden door houtstook zijn daarbij niet meegerekend. Ter vergelijk, het totale wegverkeer was verantwoordelijk voor 7,9% PM2,sen 6,6% PAK; de gehele industrie - inclusief Tata Steel - was verantwoordelijk voor 22% PM2,5 en 2,7% PAK (Emissieregistratie). Houtkachels kunnen in woonwijken verantwoordelijk zijn voor wel 50% van het gemeten PM2,S, ook bij hogere windsnelheden (Scapeler)4748. Het PM2,5 van houtrook is rijk aan PAK - carcinogeen en de belangrijkste bron voor de oxidatieve schade - het werkingsmechanisme bij luchtvervuiling. 6. Houtstook is slecht voor de natuur, ons oppervlaktewater en het klimaat Houtstook stoot per warmte-eenheid 2x zoveel CO2 uit vergeleken met een CV opgas, ook meer lachgas, methaan en roet, die het klimaat opwarmen, volgens het Europese Environmental Bureau49. Ook andere onderzoeksinstituten waarschuwen de EU dat houtverbranding i.p.v. fossiele verbranding zorgt voor een zorgwekkende toename van CO2 in de lucht.

Daarnaast tast het de biodiversiteit en de CO2 opnamecapaciteit van bossen aan en verdringt het duurzaam houtgebruik50’52. Het gaat om de European Academie Science Advisory Council (EASAC), het European Joint Research Centrum, de Griffith University en de European Scientific Advisory Board on Climate Change. Daarnaast vervuilen houtkachels ons oppervlaktewater met kwik en zijn ze de belangrijkste bron van PAK hierin 53,54. PM2,5 beschadigt de insectenantennes zodat feromonen niet meer worden waarge­ nomen, belangrijk voor de voortplanting en het voedsel zoeken55. Dat speelt een rol bij de afname van insecten, ook in afgelegen natuurgebieden.

7. Lokaal beleid met stooktips en gecertificeerde neus is arbeidsintensief en helaas niet effectief Houtstook is niet verenigbaar met de nieuwe WHO-norm. Optimaal gestookte EcoDesign kachels zijn evengoed schadelijk. Ultrafijnstof is niet te ruiken, fijnstof is per definitie onzichtbaar en ook bij hogere windsnelheden is het PMj.s ook verhoogd. Lokale stookverboden - indien wel gerealiseerd - geven onrechtvaardige verschillen in gezondheid. Een landelijk stookverbod is niet alleen meer rechtvaardig en efficiënter maar ook effectiever omdat houtrook zich niet aan de gemeentegrenzen houdt en - ook in plattelandsgebieden - zich over grote afstanden verspreid. Het Samenwerking Houtrookonderzoek (Charred) toonde dat ook aan56. Bij klachten moet gekeken worden naar een veel groter gebied, dan alleen de houtkachels vlakbij.

houtrookvrij

Stoken is geen lokaal probleem en het probleem van stokers in de buurt is overal hetzelfde. Goede landelijke campagnes kunnen het draagvlak vergroten voor een landelijk stookverbod, aan­ vankelijk gedeeltelijk. Dit is nodig omdat kennis alleen niet tot gewenste gedragsveranderingen leidt. Conclusie: huidige kennis van zaken vraagt om uitfaseren van particuliere houtstook Wij hopen dat u - met deze extra informatie, argumentatie en bronnen - kan bijdragen aan succesvol overheidsbeleid om houtstook op korte termijn in te perken en - onvermijdelijk - uit te faseren. Houtstook blijkt - net als roken - helaas niet zo gezellig. Het is belangrijk dat u uw burgers laat weten waarom ze houtstook - ook in EcoDesign - beter achterwege kunnen laten, zodat er draagvlak kan ontstaan voor een houtstookverbod. Daarnaast kan u bij de landelijke politiek aandringen op landelijk uitfaseren van houtstook volgens onderstaande suggesties. Hiermee kunnen gemeenten ook zelf — liefst gezamenlijk - hun zorgplicht ten uitvoer brengen met de bijbehorende aanpassingen in het Omgevingsplan.

Uitfaseren particuliere houtstook naar algeheel houtstookverbod in 2026 Landelijke/gemeentelijke campagnes informeren burgers over alle gezondheidsschade en dat "goed" stoken in EcoDesign met kachelfilters geen oplossing is. Dit is nodig voor het draagvlak voor uitfasering. De enige goede boodschap is 'Stook niet op hout!'. 'Met de huidige kennis van zaken, is het niet meer verantwoord om daar de buurt - maar ook jezelf en kinderen - mee te belasten. Het maakt meer kapot dan ieder lief is, ook aan de natuur en het klimaat'. Belangrijk: - houtstook is disproportioneel schadelijk, kleine minderheid schaadt vrijheid en gezondheid rest - benoem veel ziekten: hoe meer mensen het leed (in de omgeving) kennen, hoe meer draagvlak - uitfaseren houtstook onvermijdelijk: hoe eerder, hoe sneller de schade stopt: daarom per 2026. 2. Alternatieven adviseren zoals: een (hybride) warmtepomp, goede isolatie, elektrische haarden, elektrische BBQ, tuinlampionnen. 3. Burgers bij energiearmoede praktisch/financieel ondersteunen met isolatie/schone verwarming. 4. Subsidies verstrekken voor sloop van hout/pelletkachels en dak doorvoer (bij hoofdverwarming). 5. Technisch personeel kachelbranche is hard nodig voor de energietransitie naar warmtepompen, zonnepanelen en -boilers, elektrische kachels en BBQ en kan daar goed mee verdienen. 6.

Overgangsmaatregel per direct: (landelijk) stookverbod buiten 2 vaste stookdagdelen/week: woensdag- en zaterdagavond (19-22 uur) mits code geel bij de Stookwijzer. Zie punt 7. Het gaat om alle hout-gestookte toestellen zoals houtkachels, vuurkorven en BBQ. Daarbuiten is rookvrij ventileren en buitenspelen van kinderen wel mogelijk. 7. Overgangsmaatregel per direct: (landelijk) stookverbod bij Stookwijzer code rood/oranje 8. Anoniem meldpunt bij de gemeente/omgevingsdienst. Mensen willen geen conflict in de buurt. 9. Handhaving door controles (bij klachten) met drones met camera, warmtesensor, fijnstof meter en automatisch boetesysteem. Politie en brandweer hebben al expertise in het vliegen met drones boven bebouwing en in het donker. De aanpassing en uitvoering lijken zo vrij eenvoudig. 10. Wettelijk totaal houtstookverbod voor binnen en buiten per 2026.

1.

Onderstaand vindt u de genoemde bronnen en de Infographic 'Gezondheidsschade Luchtvervuiling'

Bereid tot het geven van nadere toelichting en in afwachting van uw reactie, met vriendelijke groet,

Inge Everhardus, arts Maatschappij en Gezondheid n.p. Anne-Marie Monnikhof Machteld Derks, Bestuur Stichting HoutrookVrij info@houtrookvrij.nl www.houtrookvrii.nl

houtrookvrij

Infographic van Zorona Andersen, professor Environmental Epidemiology en hoofd van de European Respiratory Society, 24-5-2023. Zie bijlage.

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https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228 Zie Executive Summary op blz. XVII en XIX (sterk bewijs). Introduction op blz. 7 (houtstook grote bron PM2,5) en blz. 10 - onderaan - en 11 (veel ziekten) en Hst 3 op blz. 75 - onderaan - (risico sterfte 1,08 = 8%, sterker effect bij lage concentraties): Kortom PM2,5 - ook uit houtstook en bij heel lage concentraties - veroorzaakt 8% oversterfte (bij oude norm, 10 mcg/m3) en ziekte aan longen, hart- en vaten, zenuwstelsel en andere organen en ook bij (ongeboren) kinderen. https://iournals.lww.com/environepidem/Fulltext/2023/04000/Clean air in Europe for all A call for more.3.aspx - JCL-P-8 Zie 4e Kop Adverse Health Effects, 3e alinea: Mortaliteit bij ELAPSE is 40% hoger dan bij de WHO (8%). Dus 1,4 x 8% = 11%. Zie 5e Kop Potential policy options, le alinea, laatste zin: houtstookverbod. Zie le alinea: "...brede consensus met groot en exponentieel gestegen wetenschappelijk bewijs dat luchtvervuiling vrijwel alle organen aantast en daarmee zorgt voor veel invaliderende ziekten". https://www.rivm.nl/publicaties/inventarisatie-van-benodigde-maatregelen-om-whoadvieswaarden-voor-luchtkwaliteit Zie Samenvatting, 3e alinea: Houtstookverbod nodig voor nieuwe WHO-norm.

https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/luft/emissionen-von-luftschadstoffen/quellen-derluftschadstoffe/holzheizungen-schlecht-fuer-gesundheit-klima DBA wijst hout/pelletkachels af. https://206.wpcdnnode.com/ioresearch.nl/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/onderzoek-naarhoutstook-definitieve-rapportage.pdf Zie blz. 22 en 23: Binnen stookt: 42+18+6 = 66% van de 21% = 14% stokers. Daarvan stookt 8% de houtkachel als hoofdverwarming. Dat is 1%. https://envcomm.act.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/OCSE-Wood-Heaters-ReportA40588031.pdf Summary. Stooktips en moderne houtkachels niet effectief: advies uitfaseren.

houtrookvrij

https://www.zorg-en-gezondheicl.be/sites/default/files/2022-04/Houtstook interventiestudie rapport finaal febr 2021 - publiekssamenvatting.pdf Optimalisering van het houtstook proces in de thuissituatie - met instructie ter plaatse - bleek de concentraties van o.a. het PlVh.s bij de kachelpijp niet te verlagen. Zie uitslagen op blz. 9. 8. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032119300012 Zie introduction: een grotere uitstoot van ultrafijnstof deeltjes door moderne kachels. Met op blz. 521 Cordwood stoves, laatste alinea: gemeten concentraties tot 700 miljoen deeltjes. Zie bijlage. 9. https://houtrookvrii.nl/2019/12/14/moderne-pelletkachel-stoot-evenveel-ultrafiinstof-uit-alshoutkachel Stichting HoutrookVrij meet met een mobiele meter (ver buiten lineaire meetbereik) bij een optimaal gestookte pelletkachel 600.000 UFP deeltjes/cm3, meer dan de houtkachel met 500.000 deeltjes/cm3. Katalytische filters lieten geen afname zien, eerder een toename. 10. https://www.ccacoalition.org/en/resources/pollution-residential-burning-danish-experienceinternational-perspective. Zie blz. 9. De Noorse eco-kachel, met betere kwalificaties dan de Europese, stoot 650.000 ultrafijnstof deeltjes/cm3 uit, onder ideale stookcondities. 11. https://publications.tno.nl/publication/34639645/LOr5Nr/TNO-2022-fiinstof.pdfZie blz.

11, 12, 14 en 15: Het aantal deeltjes ultrafijnstof en de reactiviteit ervan is een betere indicator voor de gezondheidsschade dan het gewicht van PM2,s. Ultrafijnstof dringt 5x beter in de longblaasjes (en daarmee op het autonome zenuwstelsel) en ook in de bloedbaan met een 25x groter reagerend oppervlakte vergeleken met fijnstof met een diameter van 2,5 pm. Stoffen die een sterk oxidatief potentieel hebben zijn PAK uit houtstook en metaa(deeltjes door remslijtage. 12. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3047 Zie Resultaten en Conclusie. Iedere toename van 10.000 deeltjes ultrafijnstof/cm3 geeft 76% meer hartfalen en 43% meer hartinfarcten. Bij gelijke ultrafijnstof concentrattes verdwijnen de relaties met PMio-i.sen NO2. Ook PM2,5onderschat vergeleken met ultrafijnstof de gezondheidseffecten van luchtverontreiniging. 13. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9105082/ Ultrafijnstof PMo.i heeft grotere effecten bij longpatiënten dan PMo,i-o,5. 14. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228 Zie blz. xix (21) en UFP (ultra fine particulate matter): De WHO noemt concentraties van meer dan 10.000 deeltjes/cm3 gedurende een dag en meer dan 20.000 deeltjes/cm3 gedurende een uur, als hoog en adviseert die met prioriteit te verlagen. 15. https://stab.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/ll/STAB-Kennisdocument-Houtstook-september2019.pdf Zie blz. 57, tabel 6.18.